Reading skills

Critical Thinking in Academic Contexts

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Tue, 02 Jul 2024 20:41:03 +0000

Critical Thinking in Academic Contexts ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 07/02/2024 - 16:41

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Learning strategies, Reading skills

Skills Keywords:

Critical thinking, Reading critically

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand what critical thinking is and why it is important for your academic studies
Learn how to apply critical thinking in academic reading, discussions and writing.

Introduction

Critical thinking is an essential skill for academic success and professional growth, particularly in graduate school where advanced analytical abilities are required. This Resource Page introduces what critical thinking is, explains the importance of critical thinking for graduate students, and offers practical guidelines to enhance this skill. By mastering critical thinking, you can navigate complex academic challenges and contribute meaningfully to your fields of study.

What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating our and others’ thinking with a view to improving it. Critical thinking means:

Stepping back from immediate personal feelings
Understanding why other people see something differently
Checking the accuracy of information
Checking the logic of an argument

Looking for possible flaws, assumptions, and biases in an argument
Checking statistics and other empirical data for accuracy and validity
Examining data from different angles
Reaching informed conclusions

Many students find ‘being critical’ difficult because of:

Respect for the authority of ‘experts’
For instance, you might accept a renowned professor's theory on educational methods without question, believing the professor's expertise makes their perspective infallible. Even if you have valid doubts or conflicting evidence, your respect for the professor's authority may prevent you from critically analyzing or challenging their theory.
Lack of confidence in your own judgement
For instance, you might avoid critiquing a well-established research paper in a seminar because you doubt your own analytical skills compared to your more experienced peers. Even though you have identified potential flaws or alternative interpretations, your lack of confidence in your judgment prevents you from speaking up, missing a chance to contribute to the academic discussion.
Personal biases
For instance, if you are researching the effects of technology in education, you might focus only on studies that support your belief that technology improves learning, ignoring research that highlights potential drawbacks. This personal bias prevents you from critically evaluating all the evidence, leading to a skewed (i.e., not accurate or exact) understanding of the topic and potentially flawed conclusions.
Intellectual difficulty (i.e., it's too hard)

Why is Critical Thinking Important for your Academic Studies?

You must develop critical thinking skills to

understand topics and concepts more deeply, digging below the surface
engage in critical conversations about topics
apply learned theories and develop arguments to support your claims.

You often need to apply critical thinking skills in various course activities, such as:

Seminars (e.g., in-class discussions)
Presentations
Writing (e.g., online posts, critical reflective writing, positioning paper writing, proposal writing, research papers, etc.)
Other projects and assignments (e.g., curriculum or lesson design)

How to apply Critical Thinking in Academic Reading?

Here are common strategies that can help you apply critical thinking when reading:

Focus on the instructor’s prompts (if provided)
Make a list of questions to guide your reading and ask questions as you read
Make connections to what you already know or have read
Think how the ideas apply to you, your field, or existing issues

Don’t take information at face value (i.e., don’t “accept” or agree with the information you’re reading simply because it was written by a scholar or because your instructor asked you to read it)
Take a stance while you read (i.e., don’t just stop at understanding the information, but form an opinion or idea about what you’re reading)
Take notes of observations and references to other readings or concepts

Here is a list of guiding questions that you should ask yourself when reading:

Interpret

What does this mean?
What is the best way to categorize or classify this information?
Is it the main argument of the author(s), the evidence used by the author(s) to support their claims?
Is it one of the research findings, or the implications of the author(s)?
In this context, what was intended?
Why might this be a problem or challenge?

Analyze

What claim or conclusion did the author(s) make?
What are the reasons or arguments behind this claim?
What are the pros and cons of this?
What are the differences and similarities between x and y?
What are the differences and similarities in research findings between this article and others?
What are the differences and similarities in research design between this study and others?
What are the differences and similarities in proposal 1 and proposal 2 raised in this article?
What are possible alternatives to the solutions proposed?

Evaluate

How credible is this claim?
How strong are these arguments or evidence?
Do I have all the necessary facts?
What is my position on this statement?

Connect

How does this relate to what I know, other claims, or other practices?
How is this relevant to me, this field, research, or practice?

Infer & Apply

Based on what I know so far, what conclusions can I draw?
What are the implications of this claim, evidence, or finding?
What are possible solutions to this issue?

To learn more about critical reading and see some examples, check our Resource Page on How to Read Academic Articles.

How to apply Critical Thinking in Discussions?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Collaborative Work?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Academic Writing?

Critical thinking is paramount to academic writing, as it enables you and other scholars to construct well-reasoned, coherent, and compelling arguments.

Critical writing involves not just presenting information, but also evaluating, analyzing, and synthesizing different sources to offer a balanced and insightful perspective. It requires questioning assumptions, identifying biases, and considering alternative viewpoints to strengthen the credibility and depth of the analysis. By applying critical thinking in academic writing, you can produce rigorous and original work that advances knowledge and fosters scholarly dialogue.

You are writing critically when you...

Make connections and comparisons among studies

Example:

Much of the research on written corrective feedback (WCF) has revolved around investigations into the effectiveness of focused WCF, with mounting evidence providing support for this type of feedback in producing accuracy gains (Van Beuningen, 2010). For example, Bitchener and Knock’s (2009) 10-month study into the effects of focused WCF on a targeted linguistic category using direct and metalinguistic feedback found a positive effect on grammatical accuracy that endured over time. Some research studies have examined the effectiveness of unfocused WCF or compared focused to unfocused WCF. In their study investigating the differential effects of focused versus unfocused WCF, Sheen, Wright, and Moldawa (2009) were able to show that while both types of error correction produced significant improvements in accuracy of articles, because the CMC AND WCF 5 unfocused WCF did not outperform the control group, the researchers were unable to demonstrate the benefits of providing unfocused over focused corrective feedback. Other studies have explored direct WCF compared with indirect WCF, although these results are somewhat inconclusive. Some researchers claim an advantage to direct WCF, particularly with regards to continued long-term effects on the acquisition of simple linguistic forms (Van Beuningen, de Jong & Kuiken, 2008; Bitchener & Knoch, 2009) while other researchers (Frear & Chiu, 2015) point to improvements in accuracy as a result of indirect WCF. Ferris (2010) suggests both direct and indirect feedback can deliver complementary results since both have the potential to induce L2 writers to become aware of and notice a mismatch between their own written production and target-like norms.

Feedback: The passage makes connections and comparisons among studies on written corrective feedback (WCF). It highlights that focused WCF has been shown to improve accuracy over time, as evidenced by Bitchener and Knock’s (2009) study. It contrasts these findings with research on unfocused WCF, such as the study by Sheen, Wright, and Moldawa (2009). Additionally, it compares direct and indirect WCF, noting that some studies (e.g., Van Beuningen et al., 2008; Bitchener & Knoch, 2009) support the effectiveness of direct WCF for simple linguistic forms, while others (e.g., Frear & Chiu, 2015) highlight the benefits of indirect WCF. Ferris (2010) further suggests that both types of feedback can complement each other.

Integrate your reflections and experiences

Example:

Both Strange & Hardy-Cox (2016) and Sabri (2011) demonstrated how “the student experience” has transformed into a broad categorical term that has translated into a policy framework that homogenizes and erases the experiences of marginalized students. Due to this transformation, I understand the concept of “student experience” has become inadequate for orientating and navigating the student experience when used without third-wave theories of student development (Strange & Hardy-Cox, 2016). This is emphasized by the shift in how students have become viewed as consumers and as a result, shifted how institutions approach student consultations (Sabri, 2011). While this shift in understanding has assisted institutions in addressing the diverse needs of students, the homogenization of our understanding of “student experience” remains an issue. For example, UK higher education institutions and their preference to use the experiences of privileged students within the quality assurance process – this raises the question of whose voices are valued and understood when we speak about student experiences (Strange & Cox, 2016; Sabri, 2011).
When thinking of my experiences as a student union leader, advocacy was a key component of my role. To achieve this, ensuring intersectionality and the centering of marginalized communities was utilized in various areas of decision-making. While this may have created tensions with certain groups, the benefits of using an intersectional framework were clear – as most, if not all, campaigns that aim to improve the student experience from the perspective of access and equity aim to address the barriers that prevent marginalized students from navigating the higher education landscape to what we understand as the traditional university student (i.e., white, cis, male, able-bodied).

Feedback: The student reflects on the concept of "student experience" as presented in the literature by contrasting it with their own experiences as a student. Their reflection then presents an anecdotal evidence supporting the authors' arguments for a need to acknowledge how different the experience of marginalized students' is in higher education.

Identify limitations in the literature & point out potential directions for future research

Example:

Critique example: Patel's (2022) study on using AI for personalized language learning highlights the technology's potential to tailor educational content to individual needs. However, it overlooks the critical socio-emotional components of learning, focusing solely on algorithmic customization without considering the motivational benefits of human interaction. This gap points to a need for future research to explore how AI can not only adapt to learners' cognitive profiles but also enhance emotional and social engagement. For example, scholars (e.g., James, 2023) have been experimenting with AI-empowered platforms to promote community and peer interaction as a potential solution to support both intellectual and emotional learning in ESL classrooms.

Feedback: In this example the author indicates the limitations of Patel’s study – which only focused on one element of AI for education – and then suggests directions for future research in the field.

Share potential solutions to an issue

Example:

We, the authors, recommend that teacher educators and those involved in teacher preparation, development, and implementation constantly reflect on how teacher candidates are constructing their understanding of teaching and theory–practice relationships. Enabling teacher candidates to establish a sound foundation to start their teaching careers is one of the broad goals of teacher preparation. More research is needed to understand the context of teacher preparation and how programs and individual faculty can offer appropriate, coherent learning experiences that shift away from the traditional divide between theory and practice. While a considerable body of literature about theory and practice in teacher education exists, theory–practice dynamics continue to be a challenge in terms of how teacher educators can best support teacher candidates as they develop their own understanding of theory–practice relationships in the context of learning to teach. This case study research adds to the knowledge base of teacher education, providing insight into the nature of faculty and teacher candidates’ thinking about theory– practice relationships and how this may shape practice. It also provides insight into some of the tensions and challenges faculties of education may experience as they implement new programs and/or practices that explicitly attend to creating strong theory–practice relationships.

From: Goodnough, K., Falkenberg, T., & MacDonald, R. (2016). Examining the nature of theory–practice relationships in initial teacher education: A Canadian case study. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue canadienne de l'éducation, 39(1), 1-28.

Feedback: The passage recommends that teacher educators and those involved in teacher preparation should continually reflect on how teacher candidates understand teaching and the relationship between theory and practice. It suggests that programs and faculty should provide coherent learning experiences that bridge the traditional divide between theory and practice. Additionally, it highlights the need for more research to offer insights into effective teacher education practices and the challenges faced by faculties in implementing new programs that strengthen theory–practice relationships.

Descriptive vs Critical Writing

Check the table below for the differences between descriptive and critical writing:

Descriptive writing	Critical writing
States what happened	Identifies the significance of what happened
States what something is like	Evaluates the strengths and weakness of something
Gives the story so far	Analyses how the story so far impacts on the current state of the focused issue or stakeholders involved
Says how to do something	Analyses why things are done a certain way
Explains what a theory says	Shows why a theory is relevant. Identifies the strengths and weaknesses of a theory in practice.
Explains how something works	Indicates why something will work
Notes the method used	Identifies whether a method was suitable or appropriate
Says when something occurred	Identifies why the timing is of importance
Identifies the different components of something	Weighs the importance of component parts
States options	Gives reasons for selecting each option
Lists details	Evaluates the relative significance of details
Lists in any order	Structures information in a specific order (e.g., importance, time, themes etc.)
States links between items	Shows the relevance of links between pieces of information
Gives evidence	Argues a case according to the evidence
Provides information for comparison	Makes a reasoned judgement and comparison on provided information
Gives information	Draws conclusions

Example of descriptive writing

Example:

Brown (2020) examines how mobile apps facilitate language learning, showing significant improvement in vocabulary acquisition among learners. Garcia et al. (2021) explore the role of virtual reality (VR) environments in enhancing language comprehension and cultural immersion. Zhang (2019) analyzes the effectiveness of online forums in encouraging language practice and interaction outside the classroom. Meanwhile, Patel (2022) discusses the use of artificial intelligence in personalizing language learning experiences, adjusting to individual learner's strengths and weaknesses.

Feedback: The example above is merely a summary of different research studies, without presenting any clear connection or comparison among studies, or the author’s stance.

Example of critical writing

Example:

The integration of technology into language education, as explored by recent research, offers a multifaceted view on enhancing learning outcomes. Brown (2020) highlights the role of mobile apps in vocabulary acquisition, suggesting technology's effectiveness in providing accessible learning tools. This notion of accessibility is complemented by Garcia et al. (2021), who delve into virtual reality (VR) environments, illustrating technology's capacity not only for language comprehension but for immersive cultural experiences as well, thereby broadening the scope of language learning beyond traditional methods. Zhang (2019) extends this discussion to online forums, which fostered community and interaction among learners, emphasizing the social aspect of language acquisition. On the other hand, Patel (2022) introduces a personalized approach through artificial intelligence, indicating a shift towards adaptive learning technologies that cater to individual needs. Collectively, these studies underscore a trend towards interactive and personalized learning experiences in language education, facilitated by technological advancements.

Feedback: In this example the author made connections among studies and supported their own claims with evidence from the existing literature.

Tips:

Both description AND criticality are needed in academic writing. You need to find a balance to present and analyze data.
Be curious, skeptical, and as objective as you can!

To learn more about how to write critically, check How to Integrate Others’ Research into your Writing and What are Stance & Voice and How to Apply them in Academic Writing.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

Book a writing consultation (OSSC)

How to Read Academic Articles

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Wed, 29 May 2024 15:39:33 +0000

How to Read Academic Articles ana.lacerda@ma… Wed, 05/29/2024 - 11:39

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Learning strategies, Reading skills, Research skills

Skills Keywords:

Critical thinking, Literature reviews, Note-taking, Reading critically

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the purpose of reading academic articles
Familiarize with the general structure of research articles
Read articles effectively for different course assignments

Introduction

Critical reading is an essential skill for academic success, enabling you to engage deeply with course materials and scholarly articles.

This resource page offers different strategies for critical academic reading depending on your reading purposes — whether for class discussions, selecting literature for an assignment, or delving into selected readings for your paper writing— to maximize your understanding and insight.

What are the Purposes of Academic Reading?

You are required to engage in academic reading for various purposes:

Classwork / Homework

Purpose: get the gist (i.e., main points) of assigned readings to prepare yourself for class (e.g., class discussions) or homework (e.g., online posts and discussions).

Select sources for an assignment

Purpose: decide if a source is a match for your assignment topic and goal by quickly reading it.

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Purpose: Once you have found appropriate sources, you need to read them more in detail to find and use the points that are relevant to your topic, and include them in your assignment.

What are Research Articles?

Research articles are a very common genre you are required to read in your courses. There are three main types of articles you may engage with:

Empirical Articles

These articles report original research studies, usually with primary data and results from experiments.

Example: Trenholm, S., Alcock, L., & Robinson, C. (2015). An investigation of assessment and feedback practices in fully asynchronous online undergraduate mathematics courses. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 46(8), 1197–1221. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2015.1036946

Theoretical Articles

These articles usually contain and describe new theories, principles, and concepts related to a specific field of knowledge. They normally do not present empirical or experimental data.

Example: Yazan, B. (2018). A conceptual framework to understand language teacher identities. Journal of Second Language Teacher Education, 1(1), 21–48.

Review Articles

These articles summarize and analyze published work on a certain topic to 1) synthesize the previous research, 2) provide a critical overview of the previous research, 3) evaluate the state of research, and 4) suggest gaps in knowledge and future research directions.

Example: Lapkin, S., Mady, C., & Arnott, S. (2009). Research perspectives on core French: A literature review. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12 (2). Retrieved from https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/CJAL/article/view/19936

Empirical Articles

Empirical articles are perhaps the most common type of research articles you will read during your studies. They are also often called by different names, such as experimental reports and research reports. There are two important features of these articles that you should keep in mind when you read:

Predictable Structure. Empirical articles typically follow a structure called IMRD (Introduction – Methods – Results – Discussion)
Predictable Language. Empirical articles often employ standard vocabulary or phrases for certain purposes (e.g., to introduce the research objective and research questions).

Familiarizing with the structure and language of empirical articles will help you find the main points quickly and ultimately read more efficiently.

Below is the IMRD structure of a typical empirical article with the main sections:

Abstract

The summary of key information from the entire article.

Introduction

An introduction of an empirical article normally includes the following information:

Background information of the general topic
Relevance of topic
Rationale and purpose of the study
Literature review (which can often stand as a separate section)
Review of previous research on the topic
Gaps and unanswered questions
How the study addresses gaps or questions
Significance of the study
Research questions
Definition of key terms (which may sometimes be included in other sections or sub-sections, such as the literature review or conceptual framework)

Methods

This section describes the research methods employed. It often includes the following components:

Research design
Participants
Instruments used to collect data
Procedure for data collection and analysis

Results

This section reports the findings based on data analysis. The content in this section is often divided into various sub-sections.

Discussion & Conclusion

Authors summarize and interpret the research findings in this section. In some cases, you may see the Discussion and Conclusion separated into two sections. Normally, this section includes the following information:

Summary and interpretation of findings
Answers to the research questions
Limitations
Directions for future studies

References

This section lists all the sources cited in the article.

Example: Check the video below about annotating a journal article from minute 4.05

From: Excelsior OWL - https://owl.excelsior.edu/orc/what-to-do-while-reading/annotating/annotating-a-journal-article/

How to Read Research Articles?

Here is a step-by-step process to read research articles effectively:

Preview
Read in a Specific Order
Focus on Predictable Language, Commonly Used Phrases & Vocabulary
Active Reading & Questioning
Take Notes

1. Preview

Skim the Abstract, Intro, and Conclusion: Quickly read through the Abstract, Introduction, and Conclusion to grasp the main arguments and findings. This skimming practice allows you to identify the purpose of the text, the author's hypothesis, and the conclusions drawn, providing a framework for deeper understanding when you read in full.
Scan the whole text structure (titles, headings, sub-headings). Scanning helps you understand the main themes and organization of the document, allowing you to anticipate the kind of information that will be covered, and quickly find specific information (e.g., study aim, main results, etc.).
Note aids (e.g., tables, graphs, charts, bolded terms): These elements are designed to highlight key information and can serve as clues to important concepts and data within the text.

Skim

Purpose: to quickly get a general overview or main idea of a text without reading every word or detail.
Technique: When skimming, you glance over the text, focusing on headings, subheadings, specific sections, topic sentences, and keywords.
Use: Skimming is useful when previewing a text to determine its relevance or when trying to understand the main points of a lengthy passage quickly.

Scan

Purpose: to quickly locate specific information or details within a text.
Technique: When scanning, you move your eyes rapidly over the text, looking for particular words, phrases, or information that matches your specific search criteria. You do not read every word but instead focus on finding the target information.
Use: Scanning is helpful when searching for specific facts, names, dates, or keywords within a text, such as when looking up information in an index, table of contents, or search engine results.

2. Read in a Specific Order

While engaging in academic reading, we almost never read research articles from the beginning to the end like a book. Depending on your purposes, you should read the article sections in a specific order.

Classwork/Homework

If your reading goal is to get the gist (i.e., main points) of the article, this is the suggested reading order and the specific content you can expect to find in each section.

Note: your task type and instructions ultimately determine the reading order and focus. For example:

In a Research Methods class, tasks might require you to focus on the Methods and Results sections more than you would in other classes.
If the task is about leading a discussion on an article, you might need to focus on more sections and details than you would for an online post.

Select sources for an assignment

Abstract
(Conclusion)
(Discussion)

Note: if you have a clear idea of your assignment topic, reading the abstract might sometimes be enough at this stage.

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Abstract
Introduction
Conclusion
Discussion
Results
Methods

Note: you might need to read some sections multiple times to find the points you need.

3. Focus on Predictable Language, Commonly Used Phrases & Vocabulary

Being familiar with phrases and vocabulary commonly used in academic articles will help you quickly find the information you’re looking for (e.g., study aim, research questions, and findings).

Check below some commonly used vocabulary and phrases, along with examples, for different purposes:

Research Aim & Objectives

The aim of this work/study is to...
Our research/study aims at...
The main objective/purpose is to...
In this paper, we will investigate...

Problem Statement

This seems to be a problem in...
One issue with...is that...
An emerging challenge in this area is that...

Gaps in the Literature

There is limited research discussing...
Little is known about...
As far as we know, few studies have investigated...

Findings

We found that...
Our research indicated that...
Based on the analysis, it is clear that...

Interpretation/Discussion of Findings

The findings suggest that...
A reasonable explanation of this result is that...
It may imply that...

Limitations

Because of the lack of..., we did not/could not...
One limitation of this study is that...

For more vocabulary and phrases used in academic articles, please check our Resource Page on Signposting and the information on Academic Phrasebank and Useful phrases and sentences for academic papers.

4. Active Reading & Questioning

By asking questions, you create a more interactive reading experience that promotes critical thinking, encourages curiosity, and helps clarify areas of uncertainty or ambiguity.

Use your instructor’s prompts to guide your reading: Incorporate your instructor's prompts or questions to guide your reading process.
Ask questions: As you read, generate your own questions to explore the text's implications, context, and arguments.

Below are some guiding questions you can ask for different purposes:

Classwork/homework

Note: If there are specific questions/instructions, read them first and keep them in mind as you read the article!

How is this article relevant to course content?
What is the main argument?
What are some interesting points /ideas/quotes?
Do I agree with the main argument(s)?
What are the findings and their implications?
What points /issues / questions can I use for my task (e.g., class/online discussion)?

Select sources for an assignment

What is the author’s argument and what evidence is presented to support it?
What is the authors’ research question?
Is this article a good match for my topic, research question and arguments?
How might this article be used in my assignment?

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Does point X support my argument or is it in opposition to it?
Do I agree with the author’s findings and conclusion?
How will I use point X in my assignment? How can I connect it to the point I’m trying to make?
Where is the right place in my assignment to include point X from this article?

5. Take Notes

Paraphrase or summarize main points or things to remember

After reading a section, take a moment to paraphrase or summarize the key points in your own words. This practice not only reinforces your memory and comprehension of the material but also helps clarify the main ideas and how they connect to each other. This is especially helpful when you are reading for classroom discussions, in which you are often expected to have a comprehensive and deep understanding of the assigned reading.

Respond to what you read

Questions: Develop a habit of jotting down questions that arise as you read. This can include questions about the author's reasoning, the evidence provided, or their implications.

Comments or observations: Take notes on your thoughts, reactions, and observations while reading. This can be a reflection on how the text aligns or conflicts with your previous knowledge/experience, or critical comments about the strength of the arguments presented. This kind of response fosters a more active and personal connection to the reading material.

Save or export references and quotes

Use tools to digitally highlight, save, or export important quotes and references directly from the text. Keeping a collection of these key points can be invaluable for quick review, writing assignments, or future research, ensuring you have direct evidence and citations at your fingertips. You may also consider using citation management tools to help you manage the references. Refer to our Resource Page on How to Organize Literature and Citation management guide (University of Toronto) for details.

Notetaking Examples

Below are examples of how you can take notes about the same reading for different purposes:

Sample reading: Reju, C. O., & Jita, L. C. (2020). A comparative investigation of assessment practices in distance and online learning undergraduate mathematics in Nigeria. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 10(1), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.5590/JERAP.2020.10.1.06

Assigned reading for class or homework (e.g., presentation, discussion)

Purpose of reading: online discussion

Questions to discuss: What is your experience with assessment practices as a teacher or student in online or distance courses? How is your experience similar to or different from the findings?

What course topic is this reading connected with: assessment for online courses in higher education

Main argument(s) or main findings:

The student participants expressed that they are not receiving prompt feedback on their assessments, leading to unmet expectations.
The findings indicate that assessment practices, which both differ and align, have influenced open and distance learning approaches at these universities. This highlights the importance of thoroughly evaluating assessment strategies to enhance student engagement and learning, thereby enriching the learning experiences of undergraduate mathematics students.
For high-quality and adaptable assessment methods in higher education institutions, it is crucial to offer reliable internet connectivity and consistent, precise feedback to students. Additionally, it is important to develop robust practical and online interactive sessions that engage and draw in students studying mathematics in this format. Public institutions often rely on government financial support. Consequently, the challenge of scarce resources for student assessment could be addressed through collaboration between these institutions and the government to secure the necessary resources.

Points to raise in class: Experience with online biology courses

Similarity: the lack of interactive sessions made the general experience, including assessments, less engaging and connected with real life

Difference: the feedback on assessment is often quite prompt; knowing about what was not well understood immediately based on the results of each question (automatic grading system). However, there is often no rationale explained in detail, leading to unresolved confusion even after getting feedback.

Select sources for an assignment

My research focus: students’ perspectives and experiences with assessment practices in mathematics and statistics courses in the post-secondary education context.

Source	Reju, C. O., & Jita, L. C. (2020). A comparative investigation of assessment practices in distance and online learning undergraduate mathematics in Nigeria. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 10(1), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.5590/JERAP.2020.10.1.06
Research question or objective	What are the assessment practices and how are they related to the students learning of undergraduate mathematics in distance and online education?
Arguments & findings	1. The student participants expressed that they are not receiving prompt feedback on their assessments, leading to unmet expectations. 2. The findings indicate that assessment practices, which both differ and align, have influenced open and distance learning approaches at these universities. This highlights the importance of thoroughly evaluating assessment strategies to enhance student engagement and learning, thereby enriching the learning experiences of undergraduate mathematics students. 3. For high-quality and adaptable assessment methods in higher education institutions, it is crucial to offer reliable internet connectivity and consistent, precise feedback to students. Additionally, it is important to develop robust practical and online interactive sessions that engage and draw in students studying mathematics in this format. Public institutions often rely on government financial support. Consequently, the challenge of scarce resources for student assessment could be addressed through collaboration between these institutions and the government to secure the necessary resources.
Relevance to my research focus	Highly relevant, save for paper
Potential use in paper	Can be used to suggest 1) the challenging experiences students had with assessment practices in online math courses; 2) recommendations to improve assessment experiences in online math courses

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Note: The following should be built upon the notes for determining a source for a paper

Relevant quotes:

Negative student experience, inadequate prompt feedback

“The DLI participants indicated that the prompt feedback on their assessment is lacking, resulting in their expectations not being met. One of them commented that “There is no feedback from the tutors when we do assignment online, it is so frustrating.” (p. 101)

Implication for online math education, provide interactive components for student engagement

“To ensure quality and flexible assessment practices in ODL institutions in Nigeria, it is therefore vital to provide viable Internet connectivity, alongside regular and exact feedback to the learners. There is also a need for creation of strong practical and online interactive sessions that will interest and attract students learning mathematics through this mode.” (p. 101)

My observations:

Highly relevant to focus on students' perspectives on assessment for online math learning;
Lack of instructors' or policymakers' perspectives on the same issue, even though the implications point to teaching and government funding --> Need to find if there is any paper filling this gap
The results contradict Tatira (2022), which indicated a general student satisfactory experience with assessment practices in online mathematics courses

For more information about notetaking, check our Resource Page on How to Take Notes of Readings.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

Academic Phrasebank | The University of Manchester

On Campus Services

How to Analyze Literature and Develop Ideas for my Literature Review

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Wed, 03 Apr 2024 02:09:13 +0000

How to Analyze Literature and Develop Ideas for my Literature Review ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 04/02/2024 - 22:09

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Reading skills

Skills Keywords:

Literature reviews, Note-taking, Reading critically, Writing process

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the reasons for analyzing literature and developing your own ideas for a literature review
Analyze literature you searched for and organized
Find strategies to develop your own ideas for literature review writin

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review or an academic paper and indicating you are currently in step 3: pre-writing.

Introduction

Once you’ve searched and organized the literature for your assignment, the next step is to analyze each source you have selected and develop your own ideas for your review.

In this resource page, we will provide you with strategies to analyze sources and develop ideas for your literature review writing.

If you need support on searching for and organizing literature, check our resource pages on how to find sources for assignments, how to evaluate and select literature and how to organize literature.

As analyzing literature involves reading your sources critically, you may also want to check our resource page on critical reading for effective reading strategies.

Why Analyze Literature and Develop Your Own Ideas?

Analyzing the content of the sources you have gathered and developing your own ideas for a literature review is a fundamental aspect of academic writing. This process is crucial because it helps you:

Develop critical thinking, analytical, and synthesis skills while you comprehend and evaluate the arguments, methodologies, and evidence of the source.
Ensure the originality of thoughts. A literature review does not purely summarize previous studies; it also presents your understanding of or critical perspective on the topic.
Identify gaps, contradictions, and emerging trends in the field. The findings of your literature analysis identify the patterns and gaps in existing studies and inform directions for future research. If you are doing original research, the results from the analysis can also inform the research questions or hypotheses you can focus on to fill the gaps in the field.

How to Analyze your Sources

In addition to collecting basic information for each source you’ve selected (e.g., publication date, participants, and methodologies), you should further analyze the content and make comparisons and connections with other sources in your collection.

Below are some common strategies and tips for analysis.

Summarize theories and findings that are relevant to your topic.

Some guiding questions when summarizing the theories and findings include:

What are the authors’ central arguments?
What is the research design/methodology?
How did the theories or concepts selected by the author frame their findings? (or which authors/fields of knowledge/theoretical frameworks does the author include?)
What is the evidence presented to support the arguments?

Evaluate arguments and implications.

Critically reflect on the arguments, methodologies, and evidence presented by the authors and judge the quality of the reasoning and implications. Some helpful considerations are:

Does the evidence presented by the authors support their central arguments?
Are the conclusions drawn by the author justified and logical?
Do the authors show any bias? Are there any underlying assumptions or unacknowledged perspectives that might affect the work's conclusions?
Whose voices are present? Whose voices are missing?
What are the contributions of these findings for the field?
What further questions arise for you?

Identify limitations and gaps.

Some questions that can help you with this analysis include:

What limitations or gaps can be identified in the work (e.g., in the research design or implications)? How do these affect the overall argument or findings?
What limitations or gaps do the authors acknowledge? What do they leave out (of the text)?
Do the authors suggest areas for future research? Are these suggestions feasible and relevant?
Are there any important questions left unanswered?

Compare and contrast findings and methods.

After reading multiple sources, you need to compare the information and analysis of each source to identify and evaluate emerging patterns and connections among them.

For a course paper, comparing research methods can help you illustrate future directions for research. For example, in a synthesis paper, instructors may ask you to synthesize the common research methods adopted in current studies and what potential innovations can be made in research design.

If you are working on original research, comparing research methods can help you identify the common methodological practices in existing studies and indicate the innovation of the research design of your own study. For example, if qualitative methods are dominating the area, then a mixed-method design of your study can be an innovation.

Here are some questions that can guide you:

How do the findings of this source support or contradict those from other sources?
What common themes or patterns can you identify when considering findings from across all sources?
What are the common research methods adopted in the studies?
Do research method choices lead to different findings? If so, how and why?

How to Organize your Analysis

Spreadsheet

Check this spreadsheet for an example of how you can summarize findings and record your analysis for each source in a spreadsheet. The research topic in this example is assessment practices of online mathematics and statistics courses at the undergraduate level, with a focus on students’ and instructors’ perspectives. You can first browse the overall information of the example sources and pay attention to the final two columns for findings and critical analysis.

Annotated Bibliography

Before drafting the literature review, you can also start with an annotated bibliography to summarize the findings and record your analysis of each source. To get more information about the annotated bibliography, please refer to What is an annotated bibliography and How to write an annotated bibliography resource pages.

How to Develop Ideas

While and after analyzing all the sources you have read, you will start developing ideas for your writing.

Analysis and idea development go hand in hand and don’t follow a perfectly linear process. In some cases, you might have ideas that you seek to confirm (or disprove) through your sources; in other cases, you might develop ideas as you read the literature or after organizing your analysis; often, you might do a bit of both. In any case, even when you have some ideas before your analysis, categorizing relevant information from your sources will help you further develop these ideas into detailed points and sub-points, eventually resulting in your paper structure.

Our tip: go back and forth between the literature and the analysis you organized in the previous steps to confirm, adjust and refine your ideas.

How to Categorize the Information

There are several criteria you can follow to categorize the information analyzed from your sources and develop your ideas.

Remember: The categorization criteria you choose will depend on your research questions and purpose. The chosen criteria should help you see the patterns, potential gaps, and connections among sources, as these will form the main ideas for your literature review.

By issues or themes.

In many cases, you can identify the key issues, patterns, or themes emerging from the sources you collected and analyzed. You may want to focus on these issues and themes in your review.

Example from Literature analysis example.xlsx: a point to discuss in your paper might be the positive impact of technology on assessment during the pandemic if this is the perspective you found in most sources.

From the most to least important information from the sources.

Example from Literature analysis example.xlsx: you may want to prioritize the challenges of online assessment for undergraduate-level mathematics learning because this is what most studies discussed. However, the degree of importance of information depends on your own judgment.

Chronologically.

This is a commonly used method if you intend to provide a review of how a concept (e.g., sociocultural theory) has evolved over time.

By perspectives (e.g., authors’ stances and theoretical frameworks).

Example: if your focus is on scholars’ different perspectives on the definition of teacher identity, or theories employed to explain this definition, you may want to categorize your analysis and structure your ideas using this method.

By methodology.

You can discuss how the choice of methods (e.g., quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods) has yielded different findings on the same topic and investigate why such differences occur.

By context.

You can organize your ideas based on the contexts and settings of the studies you’ve read.

Example: categorize your ideas based on geographical regions and/or institutions (e.g., k-12 schools in China; North American post-secondary institutions)

How to Organize your Ideas

After you have developed your ideas, you need to organize them so that they show the connections among your findings and follow a logical flow.

Below are some methods for organizing main ideas.

Organizing your Ideas: Outline (example) (22.86 KB, Word)

This is an example of how to use an outline to organize your ideas and visualize the connections among them. These will become the points to include in your assignment.

Organizing your Ideas: Matrix (example) (81.5 KB, PDF)

This is an example of how to use a literature review matrix to organize your ideas and visualize the connections among them. These will become the points to include in your assignment.

Organizing your Ideas: Concept Map (example) (21.38 KB, Word)

This is an example of how to use a concept map to organize your ideas and visualize the connections among them. These will become the points to include in your assignment.

Organizing your Ideas: Table (example) (21.06 KB, Word)

This is an example of how to use a table to organize your ideas and visualize the connections among them. These will become the points to include in your assignment.

Our Tips

Regardless of the method you choose to organize your ideas, we recommend that you make an outline for your paper. Making an outline is the final step of the pre-writing stage of the literature review preparation as it provides a skeleton for the structure of your paper and the foundation to start the writing process.

List the main ideas in bullet point format. They will become the main sections of your paper
Under each main idea, list the specific points and supporting evidence from the analyzed sources. These will become your section paragraphs.

By making an outline, you can also check if your ideas and points are organized in a logical order and can make adjustments accordingly.

Next Steps

Once you have analyzed the selected literature and developed and organized your ideas, you are now ready to start writing your literature review. For information and strategies, check our resource pages under the "writing process" keyword.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources:

Literature Reviews for Education and Nursing Graduate Students: Chapter 8: Writing the Literature Review

On Campus Services:

How to Evaluate and Select Literature

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Tue, 06 Feb 2024 19:12:11 +0000

How to Evaluate and Select Literature ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 02/06/2024 - 14:12

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Reading skills, Research skills

Skills Keywords:

Annotated bibliographies, Literature reviews, Reading critically, Searching for sources

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the purpose of having inclusion and exclusion criteria for evaluating literature
Learn the main steps to form inclusion and exclusion criteria for source evaluation
Develop your own inclusion and exclusion criteria for selecting literature

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review or an academic paper and indicating you are currently in step 2, part 3, evaluating and selecting literature.

Introduction

As you begin searching for sources for your assignment, you might notice that there are many available sources – sometimes too many. After doing an initial search, it is important to establish evaluation criteria to select only relevant and high-quality sources.

This page will provide you with practical strategies to develop inclusion and exclusion criteria and help you make informed decisions when selecting the sources for your assignments.

If you haven't yet started looking for sources or your search hasn't been satisfactory, please refer to our resource page on How to Find Sources for Assignments.

What are Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria?

Inclusion and exclusion criteria are parameters used to determine which sources are relevant for inclusion in a literature review or research project.

Inclusion criteria specify the characteristics that must be present in the studies for them to be considered, such as type of participants, interventions, outcomes, or study designs.

Exclusion criteria are the factors that disqualify studies from being included, like date of publication, language, or lack of peer review.

Why Do You Need Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria?

It is very important to have clear inclusion and exclusion criteria for your literature because they:

Ensure the quality of your selected literature
Reduce the number of sources you need to read during your source searching phase

Ensure that the literature is relevant to your research focus and appropriate in scope
Increase consistency in your search methodology

Using the RADAR Model and Other Criteria to Evaluate Literature

The RADAR model (Mandalios, 2013) is a framework used for evaluating sources. It provides a structured approach to help you assess important characteristics of a source, such as relevance to your research and accuracy of information. It's designed to help you make informed decisions on which sources to include or exclude. Below is what each component of the RADAR model stands for:

R: Relevance

A: Authority

D: Date

A: Accuracy

R: Rationale

In the following sub-sections, we will guide you to develop inclusion and exclusion criteria using the RADAR model and other elements to help you address these two crucial questions for source selection: 1) Can I trust this source? And 2) Is the source content relevant to my topic and scope?

Step 1: Can I Trust this Source?

The first step is to evaluate the reliability of your searched source. For this purpose, you can use the “Authority,” “Accuracy” and “Rationale” criteria from the RADAR model.

Authority

Assess the qualifications and expertise of the author or organization responsible for the source.
Evaluate the publishers to ensure the credibility of the source.

Guiding questions:

What type of work is this? (e.g., scholarly article, policy document, blog, news, etc.)
Where is this work published? (e.g., type of publication, credible publisher)
Is this work published in a peer-reviewed journal?
Who are the authors?
How is the author's expertise specifically relevant to the research topic? (Note: In certain fields or theoretical approaches, lived experience matters more than formal qualifications, and can be seen as a form of expertise.)
What other works does the publisher present?

Accuracy

Focus on the reliability and truthfulness of the information in the source.

Guiding questions:

Are the authors’ claims and arguments sufficiently supported by reliable evidence?
Is there any unverified and biased information included in the source?
How was the information gathered and presented?

Rationale

Determine the authors’ purposes and objectives.

Guiding questions:

What is the purpose of this publication? Why was it published?
To inform, teach, sell, entertain, or persuade?

Step 2: Is the Source Content Relevant to my Topic and Scope?

Once you have established that your source is reliable, you can determine the relevance of the source to your research topic and scope. For this purpose, you can use the “Relevance” and “Date” criteria from the RADAR model, along with other criteria listed below, to form your inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Relevance

Determine how well the source addresses your specific research needs.

Guiding questions:

Does the source have information relevant to my research topic?
To what extent does the source fit into the scope of my topic?

Date

Determine how current the source is for your topic.

Pay attention to the year when the source was published and set a timeframe (e.g., the most recent 10-20 years). IMPORTANT: Depending on your research topic, you might need to set different timeframes. For example:

If your topic is on a particularly current or recent issue (e.g., the use of Artificial Intelligence in the classroom; post-Covid issues in education), you may want to include more recent publications.
If your assignment is about a historical perspective on a topic (e.g., how the idea of critical pedagogy has evolved over time), you may want to include older works.

Guiding questions:

When was the source published?
In what way is this relevant for my topic?
Is the source up-to-date, or does it include outdated information?

Tip: Do not discard a source only because it’s from a few decades ago and regardless of your research topic. You may want to keep older sources if they have been very influential in the field. Many influential works in education and psychology aren’t recent, such as the works of renowned scholars Paulo Freire on critical pedagogy (1960s) or those of Jean Piaget on developmental psychology (1920s-1970s).

Language

Check what language the authors used for their work. For example, you may want to exclude sources written in languages for which it is difficult to arrange a reliable translation

Methodology

In some cases, you may want to include studies that employ a specific methodology (e.g., qualitative or quantitative studies only) or research designs (e.g., longitudinal studies).

Location & Setting

You may want to include only studies conducted in certain settings. This can refer to

geographical locations (e.g., North America)
specific contexts (e.g., universities).

Tip: When you find too many sources on your topic, you may need to narrow the scope of your topic (e.g., from schools in Canada to schools in Ontario). In the opposite case, you may need to expand the scope of your topic (e.g., from schools in Ontario to Canada).

Participants Profile

You may set criteria for participant demographics depending on the scope of your topic, such as

Education level (e.g., only participants from post-secondary institutions)
Gender
Age group
Cultural / geographical background
Other specific criteria (profession, family status, financial status, etc.)

Theoretical Framework

You may want to include works adopting a specific theoretical or conceptual framework. For instance, you may only include studies framed by sociocultural theories, a focus on gender, Indigenous perspectives, etc.

Next Step

For the next step after source evaluation, please refer to our resource page on How to Organize Literature.

Reading skills

Critical Thinking in Academic Contexts

Table of Contents

This Resource Page will help you:

Introduction

What is Critical Thinking?

Why is Critical Thinking Important for your Academic Studies?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Academic Reading?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Discussions?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Collaborative Work?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Academic Writing?

Descriptive vs Critical Writing

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Read Academic Articles

Table of Contents

This Resource Page will help you:

Introduction

What are the Purposes of Academic Reading?

What are Research Articles?

Empirical Articles

Theoretical Articles

Review Articles

Empirical Articles

How to Read Research Articles?

1. Preview

Skim

Scan

2. Read in a Specific Order

3. Focus on Predictable Language, Commonly Used Phrases & Vocabulary

4. Active Reading & Questioning

5. Take Notes

Paraphrase or summarize main points or things to remember

Respond to what you read

Save or export references and quotes

Notetaking Examples

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Analyze Literature and Develop Ideas for my Literature Review

Table of Contents

This Resource Page will help you:

Introduction

Why Analyze Literature and Develop Your Own Ideas?

How to Analyze your Sources

How to Organize your Analysis

Spreadsheet

Annotated Bibliography

How to Develop Ideas

How to Categorize the Information

How to Organize your Ideas

Our Tips

Next Steps

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources:

On Campus Services:

How to Evaluate and Select Literature

Table of Contents

This Resource Page will help you:

Introduction

What are Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria?

Why Do You Need Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria?

Using the RADAR Model and Other Criteria to Evaluate Literature

Step 1: Can I Trust this Source?

Step 2: Is the Source Content Relevant to my Topic and Scope?

Next Step

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services